Procedures/78th/A2A/BVR

SCOPE and MOTIVATION

This Training Unit assumes understanding of Tactical Communication

Beyond Visual Range engagements are the most common A2A conflicts that modern era pilots have to master.

This unit aims to teach you how to stay alive minimize blue on blue situations and teach you how to use your weapons most effectively.

NOTE: ITALIC Phraseology is said on INTRA-FLIGHT. All other Communication is on INTER-FLIGHT (MAGIC)

BVR I - Basics

This part is based on this video by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

When a fighter is committed to an intercept, the goal is to end up in an offensive position with eyes on the target. But with the proliferation of modern air-to-air missiles, it is very likely that a target may decide to fire on an interceptor before that happens. That fight can happen at Beyond Visual Range, where the only view of the other aircraft is a blip on a radar screen — so how do you survive and win a Beyond Visual Range fight?

The overall strategy to winning any BVR fight is to simply get a weapon solution on your opponent without letting them get a weapon solution on you. (This is an oversimplification of a very complex process.)

Identify Friend or Foe (IFF)

Before a fighter can fire on another aircraft, that aircraft needs to be confirmed as a valid target. That process of identification is called IFF (Identify Friend or Foe).

Weapon Engagement Zone (WEZ)

There are many ways of preventing an enemy from getting a weapon solution, involving technical countermeasures like jamming, decoys, and chaff, as well as radar-defeating maneuvers like the Notch, and low radar cross-section airframes. All of these are great but share a common flaw: they are not guaranteed to work.

The only solution that always works is staying outside the kinetic range of the enemy's missiles.

The zone where an enemy's missile can kinematically reach you is called the Weapon Engagement Zone (WEZ).

For most Red Coalition fighters, a stern WEZ of 14 NM at 30,000 ft and 4 NM at 0 MSL is a good rule of thumb. WEZ is a highly dynamic figure and requires a great amount of experience to estimate correctly, so be conservative with your approximations.

Remember the four A's: Altitude, Airspeed, Aspect, Angle-off at Launch. High values increase the WEZ; low values decrease it. Altitude is by far the most important factor.

The "OUT" Maneuver

This leads to a simple strategy for survival: turn away from the attacker as quickly as possible. This is such an effective strategy that it even has its own name and brevity code.

To execute an OUT, make a tactical turn where you maintain airspeed throughout the turn and put the threat on your 6 o'clock. Unlike standard tactical turns, this maneuver is executed at full afterburner, since survival is the primary concern.

The radio call is:

 SHADOW11 OUT [DIRECTION]

Minimum Abort Range (MAR)

There is a specific distance at which you want to initiate your turn, called the Minimum Abort Range (MAR). We want to begin the turn such that throughout and after the maneuver we remain outside the enemy's WEZ. To determine this, we need to account for the distance consumed while executing an OUT. Factoring in closure rate and turn rate, this comes out to approximately 4 NM in most scenarios at 30,000 ft, and 2–3 NM at lower altitudes.

Adding this to a WEZ of 14 NM gives a MAR of 17–18 NM; adding one mile of margin gives a MAR of 19 NM at 30,000 ft. This is the distance at which you want to execute your OUT.

BVR II - TACTICS

This part is based on this video by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

BVR II A - SKATE

In many defensive scenarios where the safety of the intercepting fighter is more important than the destruction of enemy assets, we have launch-and-leave tactics. Just like the name implies, ordnance is launched and then the fighter executes an OUT. Launch-and-leave preserves range between interceptors and the target, thereby keeping them outside of an adversary's WEZ — but it also points the fighter's weapons and sensors away from the target. Flying away makes confirmation of weapons effects more difficult and usually results in a lower probability of kill. However, this may be enough to accomplish the mission objective: if firing a missile at a hostile aircraft gets it to leave defended airspace, that's a win — even if it doesn't result in a kill.

Launch-and-leave tactics have their own brevity code, known as SKATE:

 SHADOW11 [SHORT / / LONG] SKATE

To understand the difference between SHORT SKATE, SKATE, and LONG SKATE, we need to introduce two more concepts.

The "IN" Maneuver

Similar to the OUT, the IN is a full afterburner turn that maintains airspeed and altitude, but puts the adversary on your 12 o'clock.

 SHADOW11 IN

The IN has approximately the same distance cost as the OUT.

Minimum Out Range / Desired Out Range (MOR / DOR)

The Minimum Out Range (MOR) also called the Desired Out Range is the distance to the adversary at which we can execute an OUT, then an IN, launch a second missile, and execute another OUT — all while staying outside the adversary's WEZ.

So in addition to the MAR, we account for one IN and one additional OUT maneuver:

 MOR = MAR + cost of IN + cost of OUT = 19 NM + 4 NM + 4 NM = 27 NM

SHORT SKATE / SKATE / LONG SKATE

SKATE is the overarching brevity for a launch-and-leave tactic. It is not a maneuver like the IN and OUT, but a tactic.

• A SHORT SKATE is defined by executing a single OUT at MAR (19 NM).
• A SKATE is executed at MOR (27 NM), with the intention of turning back in for a follow-up engagement.
• A LONG SKATE allows for two additional launch opportunities and is executed at:

 MOR + cost of IN + cost of OUT = 27 NM + 4 NM + 4 NM = 35 NM

BVR II B - BANZAI

In some scenarios where Defending a position is Essential to Mission Success a Higher Risk tactic might be acceptable. In a scenario where high risk is acceptable interceptors would lauch their ordinance and cotinoue on toward the target. This allows them to better assess the results of their shots and keep their weapons pointed toward the enemy in caase further shots are needed. Any Plan that follows this logic will fall inot the category of laucnch and decide.

The Brevity for this Doctrine is BANZAI

SHADOW11 BANZAI 

and defined as: Executing Launch and Decide Tactics with the INTENT TO MANEUVER INTO THE VISUAL ARENA. This is important since this is the only real way to confirm that a target has been destroyed. Remember that just because you see a Target disappear from your sensors after firiing at it doesn't mean that it was hit.

THE CRANK

The most important Maneuver here is going to be the CRANK like other important conecpts it has its own Breviy.

SHADOW11 CRANK [DIRECTION]

When two aircraft are on a direct intercept (ATA 0, TA 0), the entire speed of both aircraft contributes to closure. Introducing an angular offset eg. placing the bandit at the radar gimbal limit means only the component of speed along the bearing line contributes to closure. The greater the offset, the lower the closure rate.

Practically: cranking at the gimbal limit (typically 60° on the F-16 FCR) cuts closure rate significantly while keeping the bandit on radar. This gives the missile more time to reach the target, forces any incoming missile to turn harder to chase you, and may result in the kinematic defeat of that missile.

Remember: RANGE IS SAFETY

Ex. We are on direct course towards a hostile and Launch a missile at 20NM that isslile finally reaches the target when we are 10NM apart. But if would crank and cut our closure in half then that final range would only be 15NM. with a WEZ of 14NM this can be the difference between life and death.

Since with a BANZAI we plan to get within the Visual Arena having a plan how to stay alive within it is very important. This Topic is called Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM)

BVR III - Shoot Doctrine and Sorting

This part is based on this and this video by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

Shoot Doctrine

There are two ways take shots in BVR.

SHOOT-ASESS-SHOOT

Here we intentionally hold on to a follow up shot to find out if another shot is needed. You should use this Doctrine when ordinanace is limited.

SHOOT-SHOOT-ASESS

Here we send salvos of missiles in each attack. To fully understand how this helps you need to understand Probability of Kill Which will be covered in BVR VI. For now just Remember that Launching two or missiles increases your Probability of Kill. You should only use the doctrine if you have enough spare Ordinance.

Practically speaking It only makes sense to SHOOT-SHOOT-ASSESS if your certain that the Enemy will not defeat your missiles kinematically.

Airspace Sanitization and MELD

Before a flight can focus on an assigned group, the crew first needs to ensure no undetected threats are present elsewhere in the battlespace. This process is called airspace sanitization: each aircraft scans its assigned Area of Responsibility (AoR) with the radar set to maximum azimuth and altitude coverage, sweeping for any contacts that may have gone undetected by other Radars. In a flight of at least two, the radars are typically mated: each pilot covers a different altitude band with a slight overlap.

The flight lead can call MELD. Which is defined as:

MELD

Shift radar responsibilities from sanitizing to gaining situational awareness on the assigned GROUP.

MAGIC SHADOW11 MELD

All Fighters now narrow their radar focus onto the assigned group in preparation for sorting and weapon employment.

Later the Flight Lead can call Dropping which indicates continuation of the Sanitization Responsibilities. See more Below.

Sorting

Sorting is the process of assigning targets inside a targeted group of adversary's to your flight members. As with many important concepts there are two brevity's associated with it

SORT

Assignment of responsibility within a GROUP; criteria can be met visually, electromagnetically (e.g.,radar), or both.

SORTED

Sort responsibility within a GROUP has been met.

Within the COMMS flow this could look as follows

FLIGHT SORT LEAD LEFT LOW

#2 SORTED

#3 SORTED

#4 SORTED

This is said of Intra-flight and conveys the following:

In this Graphic we can see a Friendly Box Formation and a Group of Adversary's in a Three Ship VIC. Sorting LEAD LEFT LOW implys that the FLIGHT LEAD will take the Adversary Lead aircraft.

#2 Will then SORT again without the Aircraft already covered by #1. #2 tryies to take the LEAD aircraft but since there is no clear Lead between the remaining adversary's he will fall back to the LEFT aircraft.

#3 Will take the remining aircraft

#4 Does not Plan on Locking any adversary

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BVR IV - Defensive Counter Air (DCA)

This part is inspired by this video by FlyAndWire.

Now that we have an overview of what tactics exist, we need to figure out how to use them to defend a ground target.

DCA Lanes

To keep things organized in complex scenarios, the battlespace is divided into DCA lanes.

A lane might look like this:

Threat Range

The prebriefed range at which an untargeted GROUP meeting THREAT criteria triggers a THREAT call. Prebriefed per sortie.

A Group is becomming a threat. FL should evaluate and notice.

TAC Range

Default 60 nm from the closest fighter to the closest GROUP. Signals all players to prepare for targeting.

FL should evaluate tactic of engagement if not prebriefed.

Targeting range

The prebriefed distance at which all contacts must be intercepted. A GROUP inside this range with no assigned fighter is UNTARGETED. Prebriefed per sortie.

Responsebillity goes to the CAP Aircrafts on station. FL should have a gameplan.

Commit Line (CL)

IAW with theater ROE, an adversary crossing this line is declared hostile. The Commit Line will be prebriefed for all DCA sorties.

FL briefes wingmen, notifies TACC and flight sorts.

Mission fail line

The line the enemy must not cross for the mission to succeed. Defines the maximum depth of the defensive problem.

Is a Mission abort criteria.

Low Risk Engagement Zone (LREZ)

This is the zone where the flight lead should only accept low-risk tactics, since there is no immediate threat. Some form of launch-and-leave would be used.

Medium Risk Engagement Zone (MREZ)

Here the flight lead must make a decision. If the force ratio is favorable enough that the risk of loss of life is low, a launch-and-decide tactic may be chosen; otherwise the flight lead should fall back to launch-and-leave tactics.

High Risk Engagement Zone (HREZ)

At this point the risk of loss of fighters may be acceptable, so a launch-and-decide tactic is most likely to be chosen.

The DCA Flow

Assume a flight of 2 F-16s flying their DCA orbit, as a group of 2 contacts closes in on the Commit Line.

MAGIC SHADOW11 PICTURE

 SHADOW11 ONE GROUP NORTH GROUP BULLSEYE 030 40 25 THOUSAND TRACK SOUTH BOGEY 2 CONTACTS

If not prebriefed, now is the time to decide on a DCA plan. On intraflight, the flight lead could call:

 FLIGHT. SKATE 1 SHOT PER GROUP; SHORT SKATE 1 SHOT PER CONTACT AND CRANK; BANZAI 2 SHOTS PER CONTACT AND BRACKET

#2, #3, #4 

Here, SHADOW 11 plans to execute a SKATE once the 2 contacts cross the Commit Line and launch one missile.

If the SKATE does not achieve the objective, the flight will RESET (more on that later) and execute a SHORT SKATE once the group crosses into MREZ, with a CRANK, shooting 2 missiles — one per contact.

If that also fails and the group crosses into HREZ, the flight plans to execute a BANZAI and shoot 2 missiles per contact. (BRACKET is covered in Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM).)

For this example we will assume the SKATE was successful.

The Commit

Once the group of bogeys crosses the Commit Line (CL), the flight lead calls MAGIC:

 MAGIC SHADOW11 RECOMMEND COMMIT NORTH GROUP

 SHADOW11 MAGIC COMMIT NORTH GROUP BULLSEYE 060 30 25 THOUSAND HOT HOSTILE 2 CONTACTS

 COMMIT NORTH GROUP SHADOW11

Note: A commit can also be called onto multiple groups.

Targeting

The next step is targeting. Targeting is an important tool when there are multiple groups inside the lane or battlespace. It signals all surrounding fighters that your flight is taking responsibility for engaging a certain group. Its Common Practice to do the Tactical Decision together with the Targeting Call

There are two brevity calls associated with targeting:

TARGET — Assignment of targeting responsibilities.

TARGETING — Fighter has acquired the assigned group and assumed responsibility for it.

TARGET is used to assign targeting responsibilities within a commit:

SHADOW12 TARGET NORTH GROUP SHADOW FLIGHT SKATE

#2

Once the target appears on the fighter's radar or datalink:

 SHADOW12 TARGETED NORTH GROUP 

Or, if committed on multiple groups:

 #1,2 TARGET WEST GROUP SKATE; #3,4 TARGET EAST GROUP SHORT SKATE. SHADOW11

Once the targets appear on the fighters' radars:

 SHADOW11 TARGETED WEST GROUP 

 SHADOW12 TARGETED WEST GROUP

 SHADOW13 TARGETED EAST GROUP

 SHADOW14 TARGETED EAST GROUP

Meld, Sorting, and JUDY

Now that its clear who is responsible for which Groups the Flight Must wait until their own radar picks up the contacts. Once in Range:

MAGIC SHADOW11 MELD

#2 #3 #4

FLIGHT SORT LEFT LEAD HIGH

#2 SORTED

#3 SORTED

#4 SORTED

Once All Flight Members have Sorted and the Flight Lead does not need futher Information by the Controller he may call.

MAGIC SHADOW11 JUDY

Judy is defined as: Aircrew has taken control of the intercept and only requires situation awareness information; controller will minimize radio transmissions

Transition Range (TR) and Weapon Employment

Finally, we reach the point where a missile can be fired. The Transition Range is defined as the range at which a launched FOX-3 missile will go active before the OUT at DOR. This requires practice and mental arithmetic to get right. A missile may be launched before or after the TR depending on the Situation.

The Flight Lead will instruct his wingman to enagage by calling

SHADOW12 ENGAGE

#2 fires their missile, and the #2 calls on MAGIC:

 SHADOW12 FOX3 NORTH GROUP LEAD CONTACT

 SHADOW11 MAGIC COPY SHOT

The First OUT

 MAGIC SHADOW FLIGHT OUT SOUTH DROPPING NORTH GROUP

The brevity DROPPING signals MAGIC that SHADOW flight has stopped monitoring NORTH GROUP and requires updated information and will return to Airspace Sanitization Radar Settings.

After flying southbound and defeating any missiles the adversary may have launched, SHADOW flight prepares for the IN to confirm weapon effects or launch a second missile if necessary.

The IN

MAGIC SHADOW FLIGHT IN #1,2 TARGETED NORTH GROUP

MAGIC SHADOW11 MELD

FLIGHT SORT RIGHT TRAIL HIGH

#2 SORTED

#3 SORTED

#4 SORTED

Once SHADOW flight turns around, they confirm via their sensors that the adversary group has turned around and is proceeding back over the Commit Line.

they return to the prebriefed position.

RESET

The RESET brevity signals exactly this. It is defined as: Proceed to prebriefed position / area of operations.

RESET implies Dropping and returning the Targeting Responsibility.

 MAGIC SHADOW11 RESET

BVR V - Offensive Counter air (oca)

Is the opposite of DCA. This time, we are not in a lane ourselves other than attacking the enemies CAP station to invade and takeover air superiority either a short time so strike aircrafts can do their tasking or for a longer time to set up a DCA Lane ourselves by clearing the space for a following DCA Flight.

An OCA Flight enters the station by checkin in with TACC2. Thereafter, the flight recieves a picture. If not, the FL should ask for one.

If the flight notices a Group on their sensors it wants to attack a Declaration has to be given by TACC. The FL would tell TAC , that the flight is targeting the specific group. OCA has the following phases:

Phases of OCA

Check in: The flight enters the AOR and builds up SA by recieving the picture.

Targeting: The FL notifies TACC about the Group, the Flight now is responable for and designs the gameplan if not prebriefed. The gameplan is then to be briefed on intraflight and the flight sorts. Wingmen will call Sorted once the process is completed.

Tactical Decission: The FL informs other flights in the area on TACC2 about the Tactic the flight uses for the targeted group and that the flight is sorted if so. Also he gives the Meld call to inform about the airspace not longer beeing sanatized.

Engage Call: FL Tells Wingmen to engage assigned Target. All shots are to be called out. 

OUT or Defensive: The Flight performs a controlled OUT maneuver or each element does a reactive defensive maneuver to avoid incomming ordnance. In each situation a designed call has to be made followed by the direction. 

Dropping: The flight is in cold aspect to the hostiles position and reastablishes Air Space Sanitization. FL will give Dropping call followed by the preaviously targeted group.

Assesment: Flight approves the effectiveness or ineffectivness of the Attack and states out the status on TACC2. FL will evaluate how to proceed.

Second IN: If the Attack was unsuccessfull, it may be repeated by doing a second in. FL gives the IN call followed by the group and the procedure itself repeats. A second sorting is only to be done if needed. 

OCA Range Structure

The same range lines apply as in DCA — Threat Range, Targeting Range, and TAC Range — but all are prebriefed based on the specific mission geometry and threat environment. There is no commit line or mission fail line in OCA.

BVR VI — Intercept Geometry

This part is based on the FlyAndWire BVR Series by FlyAndWire.

Hot and Cold Side of the Display

At any given moment, one side of your FCR is hot and the other is cold:

• Hot side — the side where TA is decreasing (geometry is closing). The bandit is drifting toward the hot side.
• Cold side — the side where TA is increasing (geometry is opening).

Collision Course acts as the dividing line between hot and cold. A target placed on the hot side of CC means your Cut is greater than CC, and TA will decrease over time. A target on the cold side means TA is increasing.

This concept is critical for correcting your geometry before a shot. If your TA is too high for a clean missile employment, you need to drive the bandit to the hot side of the display until TA reaches the desired value, then capture it using CC.

Collision Course and Drift

Collision Course (CC) is the condition where neither aircraft's relative position in space changes over time. If co-altitude, they will collide. CC is the most efficient way to reduce range.

When the aircraft are not on Collision Course, the bandit's position on your display drifts — it moves left or right over time. This is called Drift, and it has two components:

• Turn Drift — caused by your own maneuvering. When you turn, the bandit's relative position shifts.
• Intercept Drift — caused by a lack of CC. Even without maneuvering, the bandit moves across your display because the geometry is offset.

Combined, these produce Displayed Drift — what you actually see on the FCR.

Drift is your primary tool for assessing whether you are on CC or not:

• No drift → you are on or near Collision Course
• Drift left → target is passing in front of you, left side
• Drift right → target is passing in front of you, right side

On a B-Scope (F-16 FCR), drift appears as horizontal movement of the radar return over time. Monitoring drift is a habit, not a one-time check.

When on Collision Course, the ATA is relabelled CATA (Collision Antenna Train Angle).

Geometry Gameplans

Given a target at some TA and ATA, the following rules of thumb apply for managing geometry toward a shot:

Situation	Correct Response
TA too low (near 0)	Use Cut-Away to build angles; place target on cold side
TA acceptable, LS acceptable	Turn to Zero-Cut (parallel) to capture LS
TA acceptable, range must close	Turn to Collision Course to capture TA and drive range down
TA too high for shot	Place target on hot side; drive TA down to desired value, then capture with CC

In practice on the F-16, the most common case before a FOX-3 shot is TA too high. The correction is simple: place the bandit on the hot side of the display and maintain until TA reaches the desired value. Then switch to CC to lock it in.

A note on desired TA for missile employment: the lower the TA at launch, the more efficient the missile's flight path to the target. A shot taken with TA 0–30 (Hot) is significantly more effective than the same shot taken at TA 90 (Beam). This is not a minor difference — the FlyAndWire series demonstrates a 15% improvement in missile impact speed simply by switching from Pure Pursuit to Collision Course at the same range and TA.

Zero-Cut

Zero-Cut deserves special attention. When Cut equals zero, your nose points at the bandit's reciprocal — you are flying parallel to the bandit's course in the opposite direction.

Two things happen simultaneously:

1. Lateral Separation is captured — it does not change.
2. TA increases predictably — and the rate of increase is geometric: angles double as range halves.

This second property makes Zero-Cut an extremely useful estimation tool. If at 40 NM your TA is 20°, at 20 NM it will be approximately 40°. This allows you to project ahead and decide when to act before the geometry becomes unworkable.

Missile Employment and Geometry

Three launch conditions, in order of preference:

Pure Pursuit (PP)

The fighter's nose points at the bandit. The missile must curve to intercept. At significant TA values, the missile wastes energy turning and its effective range and impact speed decrease substantially. Acceptable only when TA is near zero.

Collision Course (CC)

The fighter is on a collision course with the bandit. The missile's initial vector is already close to optimal. At the same TA and range, a CC launch produces meaningfully higher impact speed and shorter time of flight than PP. This is the minimum standard for FOX-3 employment.

Lead Collision (LC)

The fighter points slightly ahead of CC — not for the aircraft, but to give the missile an even more direct path to the target. On the F-16, the ASE (Allowable Steering Error) steering dot guides the pilot to the LC position. The rule: centre the dot and fire.

For the AIM-120, LC is typically a small offset from CC. The improvement over CC is modest but real, and the cost is only the time to centre the dot — there is no reason not to use it.

In order of missile performance: LC > CC >> PP.

Action	Effect on TA	Effect on LS	Effect on Range
Cut greater than CC	Decreases	Decreases	Decreases
Cut equals CC	Captured	Decreases	Decreases
Zero-Cut (parallel)	Increases	Captured	Decreases
Cut-Away	Increases	Increases	Increases
Crank (gimbal limit)	Increases slowly	Increases slowly	Decreases slowly