Procedures/78th/A2A/BFM

BFM I — Energy and the EM Diagram

This part is based on this video series by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

Energy

Every decision in a dogfight is an energy decision. An aircraft's energy state is expressed primarily as airspeed and altitude. The faster and higher you are, the more potential energy you have to maneuver. Energy buys turn rate, separation, and shot opportunities. Waste Energy and you will loose.

The First principle of BFM is simple: build energy and save it until you have a reason to spend it. That reason is either a shot on the bandit or denying a shot on yourself. If neither opportunity exists, maintain or build energy. Do not waste.

The Energy Maneuverability (EM) Diagram

The EM diagram is the definitive tool for understanding how an aircraft performs in a turning fight. It maps turn rate against airspeed for a specific set of parameters: aircraft weight, altitude, throttle setting, and configuration. Every number on the chart is only valid for those exact conditions.

For the F-16C in DCS the reference diagram is: Full AB · Clean · Sea Level · 12300 kg

Key performance figures from this diagram:

Parameter	Value	Condition
Max instantaneous turn rate	24°/s	393 KCAS
Max sustained turn rate	18°/s	523 KCAS
Min sustained turn radius	1,462 ft	246 KCAS
Min turn radius	1,399 ft	169 KCAS

Note: The F-16's G-limiter schedule is not fully reflected in the upper portion of this diagram. Maximum instantaneous performance may be lower than indicated in practice. The DCS implementation of the F-16 Flight Model also severely limits the F16's Sustained turn rate.

Reading the Diagram

The Axes

• Horizontal axis: airspeed in Mach (lower) and KCAS (higher)
• Vertical axis: turn rate in degrees per second (°/s)

Moving up on the chart means higher turn rate.

The Lines

The Envelope (red)

The outer boundary of what the aircraft can physically do. It is shaped by three limits:

• Structural G limit is the maximum G the airframe can sustain; forms the upper-right boundary
• Angle of attack limit — the stall boundary; forms the left boundary
• Speed limit (Vmax) — the right-side boundary (going supersonic will nearly always kill both your turn rate and radius and is not desirable)

No matter what the pilot does, the aircraft cannot operate outside the red envelope.

Turn Radius Lines (brown)

These straight lines show turn radius in feet at any given point on the chart. Moving up and left gives a smaller radius.

G-Load Lines (gray)

Indicate how many G must be pulled to reach that point on the chart. To achieve a Instantaneous Turn rate of 20° at 400CAS the aircraft needs to pull about 7.5G

Ps Lines (solid black)

Specific excess power lines are the most important lines on the chart. They show whether the aircraft is gaining or losing energy at any given combination of speed and G.

• Ps = 0 — the aircraft is exactly maintaining its energy state. This is the sustained turn line. The maximum turn rate achievable while sustaining speed and altitude sits on this line.
• Ps > 0 (positive numbers) — the aircraft is gaining energy. It can accelerate or climb while maintaining the current turn.
• Ps < 0 (negative numbers) — the aircraft is losing energy. It is spending saved energy for extra turn performance. This is temporary and cannot be maintained indefinitely.

Anything above the Ps = 0 line is an energy expenditure. The higher above it you go, the faster you bleed speed.

Corner Velocity

Corner velocity is the airspeed at which the aircraft achieves its maximum instantaneous turn rate — the peak of the envelope. For the F-16C at sea level this occurs at 401CAS, producing 24°/s.

For the maximum Instantaneous turn the DCS Flight model requires the pilot to pull 9G and decent with over 1200ft/s which is in any way not sustainable unless the a significant amount of Altitude has been built up. DO NOT use this unless you need to safe your life.

Sustained Turn Rate

The sustained turn rate is the maximum turn rate the aircraft can maintain indefinitely without losing speed or altitude. For the F-16C at sea level this is 18°/s @ 523 KCAS.

In practice, sustained operations happen on or near the Ps = 0 line. The pilot's job is to find and hold that point. Sadly in DCS to hold and maintain that line is impossible. To Fly Perfect Sustained Turn Rate you need to pull 9G in full afterburner. You will know that you hit the perfect speed if, at max pull, in a level turn, the Jet neither gains nor looses Max energy.

A sustained 9G turn will black out any pilot. To Compensate the Pilot should fly slighly below the Optimal Speed allowing for higher turn rate while loosing a small amount of energy. Once the Jet reaches around 70-80 KTS below optimal speed the pilot should reduce the pull to about 6G for maximum recovery speed. While only pulling 6G the jet will gain energy fast. Once back at optimal speed continue to pull 9G.

If you overshoot the Optimal Speed you will notice that even at max pull the aircraft is still gaining airspeed. In this case execute a spiral climb to return back to Optimal Speed while utilizing the excess Energy.

If you undershoot the Optimal Speed you will notice that at max pull the aircraft is loosing airspeed fast. Either Reduce pull back to 6G until at better speed or trade altitude for extra Energy.

Instantaneous vs Sustained

	Instantaneous	Sustained
Definition	Maximum turn rate achievable at any moment	Maximum turn rate maintainable indefinitely
F-16C value (sea level)	24°/s @ 393 KCAS	18°/s @ 523 KCAS
Energy cost	High: Far above Ps = 0, bleeding speed fast (expect around 50kts/s)	None if optimally flown on Ps = 0 line
When to use	Short bursts for a shot opportunity or to deny a shot	Default gameplan in any sustained turning fight

Instantaneous turn rate is spending saved energy. It is a powerful tool but a temporary one. A pilot who pulls to instantaneous continuously will bleed to low speed, and lose the fight on energy.

How Altitude and Stores Affect the Diagram

The reference diagram is for sea level, clean, full AB. Both altitude and external stores degrade performance:

• Altitude: thinner air reduces lift and engine thrust. Turn rate and sustained performance both decrease. The same airspeed produces a larger turn radius at altitude.
• Weight: Fuel or Stores will both make you heavy. The heavier you are the worse the performance. As you burn fuel the optimum Sustained turn rate Speed will decrease into manageable Levels.

Practical Application

In the fight itself: treat energy like money. Build it, save it, and spend it only when the return is worth it. A valid shot, or surviving by denying the adversary a shot oportunity. Spending energy for no tactical gain is a losing strategy.

BFM II — Angles and Geometry

Angles and Definitions

Antenna Train Angle (ATA)

The ATA is the position of the bandit left or right of the fighter's nose on the radar display. ATA 0 means the target is dead ahead. ATA 30R means the target is 30° to the right of your nose.

The ATA is a property of your own aircraft's orientation. It changes when you maneuver. It does not change instantaneously when the bandit maneuvers.

On the F-16 FCR, ATA is read on the horizontal axis.

Target Aspect (TA)

Target Aspect, not to confuse with Aspect Angle is how the bandit appears from your perspective. Specifically, the angle from the bearing line of the fighter to the nose of the target. It describes which part of the bandit you are looking at.

• TA 0 —you are looking at the bandit's nose (head-on)
• TA 90 — you are looking at the bandit's side
• TA 180 — you are looking at the bandit's tail (pure stern)

TA is signed left or right depending on which side of the bandit you are observing.

Unlike ATA, Target Aspect is entirely determined by the bandit's heading relative to the bearing line between you. You cannot change it instantaneously. You can only influence it over time by maneuvering to change the geometry.

The F-16 does not display TA directly. It displays the Aspect Angle (AA), which is the supplementary angle of TA (AA = 180° − TA). A tail-aspect shot has AA 0; a head-on shot has AA 180.

Common TA labels used in brevity:

TA	AA	Label
0°–30°	150°–180°	Hot
31°–75°	105°–149°	Flank
76°–110°	70°–104°	Beam
111°–150°	30°–69°	Drag
151°–180°	0°–29°	Cold

Cut

Cut is the angle from the Fighter Heading (FH) to the Bandit Reciprocal (BR). It describes where your nose is pointing relative to the bandit's course.

Cut is an older concept but remains one of the most useful tools for predicting how the geometry will evolve. Three reference cases:

• Cut greater than Collision Course — your nose is in front of the bandit. Over time, TA decreases and Lateral Separation decreases. You are closing the geometry aggressively.
• Cut equal to Collision Course — the magic case. TA is captured: it does not change. Lateral Separation decreases. If co-altitude, you will eventually collide.
• Cut less than Collision Course (Zero-Cut / Parallel) — your nose points at the bandit's reciprocal. TA increases over time. Lateral Separation is captured: it does not change.
• Cut-Away — your nose points away from the bandit entirely. Both TA and Lateral Separation increase. Used to build angles or lateral room.

Degrees to Go (DTG) / Heading Crossing Angle (HCA)

DTG is the number of degrees the fighter needs to turn to be parallel to the bandit's flight path. It is the supplementary angle of Cut. A useful memory aid: Degrees to Go — where? Parallel.

Lateral Separation (LS)

Lateral Separation is the perpendicular distance between the two flight paths. It determines how much maneuvering room exists for a conversion. It is approximated as:

 LS (ft) = TA × SR × 100

Where SR is slant range in nautical miles. Lateral Separation matters most when planning a stern conversion or assessing whether a shot is geometrically viable.

Direction of Passage (DOP)

DOP describes the direction the bandit would cross your flight path if neither aircraft maneuvered. Called as left-to-right or right-to-left. Useful shorthand for building SA quickly.

Slant Range (SR)

The straight line-of-sight distance between the two aircraft in three-dimensional space. On the F-16 FCR this is the range displayed on the scope.

Pursuit Types

The type of pursuit describes where your nose is pointing relative to the target.

Pursuit Type	Nose Position	Common Use
Lead Pursuit	In front of the target	Collision Course, gun employment from RQ
Pure Pursuit	Directly at the target	Simple conversions; commonly overused by new pilots
Lag Pursuit	Behind the target	Geometry management, WVR maneuvering

BFM III — Offensive BFM

Offensive BFM begins with you in a position of advantage. The bandit is somewhere in your forward hemisphere and your job is to convert that advantage into a weapons solution before he can deny it.

The Turn Circle

Every maneuvering aircraft has a turn circle, the circular path it is flying at any given moment. To employ weapons on the bandit you must get inside his turn circle, or at minimum align with it. Getting outside means you are turning wider than he is and falling behind.

The cue for turn circle entry is a high LOS rate (see below). As you approach the edge of the bandit's circle the bandit will begin moving rapidly across your field of view. Turn at that moment. Turn too early and you cross inside his radius, giving him a reversal opportunity. Turn too late and you end up outside his circle with AA too high to employ.

Line of Sight Rate

Line of Sight (LOS) rate is the speed at which the bandit moves across your field of view. It is one of the most important diagnostic tools in BFM and appears throughout offensive, defensive, and high aspect engagements.

A high LOS rate means the bandit is moving quickly across your canopy. A low or zero LOS rate means the bandit is stable relative to your nose. LOS rate tells you two things:

• Where are you relative to the bandit's turn circle? A sudden spike in LOS rate signals that you have reached the edge of his turn circle. Inside his circle, LOS rate is high. Outside it, LOS rate is low.
• What is the Geometry doing? Aft LOS movement means the bandit is drifting toward your 6; forward LOS movement means he is drifting toward your 12. The direction and speed of that drift tells you whether the geometry is improving or deteriorating.

Learning to read LOS rate is not an instrument skill. It is a visual habit and requires practice.

The Control Zone

The control zone is the offensive firing position, located in the bandit's rear quarter. From the control zone you have sufficient range for weapon employment, a manageable aspect angle, and controlled closure.

Getting into the control zone is not enough. You must assess before employing. The assessment uses the Rule of Threes:

Parameter	Value	Notes
Range	~3,000 ft	Read from HUD or FCR
Aspect Angle	≤30°	Draw an imaginary box around the bandit — square silhouette means ~30° AA
Closure	Steady and controlled	Not increasing, not zero

All three must be satisfied before moving in for a gun solution. If any are not met, reposition first.

Repositions

Repositions are controlled adjustments to fix range, closure, or aspect problems from the control zone.

Lead Reposition

Used when the bandit is pulling away and range is increasing. Pull lead pursuit to close the gap. Do not overshoot.

Lag Reposition

Used when closure is too high. Pull lag pursuit to slow closure and improve aspect. The bandit will drift aft in your field of view. Reassess once closure is controlled.

Ease Reposition

Used when range and closure are acceptable but aspect is slightly high. Ease back on the stick to widen your turn circle slightly. AA will decrease as the geometry opens. Once AA is acceptable, resume the original pull and reassess. This is a small correction — if aspect is significantly high, use a lag reposition instead.

Visual Aspect Estimation

Without looking at instruments, AA can be estimated by the shape of the bandit's silhouette:

• Rectangle (fuselage longer than wingspan) means AA is above 30°, too high for a clean gun solution
• Square (fuselage approximately equal to wingspan) means AA is approximately 30°, Rule of Threes satisfied
• Narrowing toward a point means AA is near 0°, pure tail-aspect

This visual check is faster than any instrument cross-check in a close turning fight.

Weapon Employment

Heat Seeker (FOX-2)

A valid FOX-2 shot requires a confirmed seeker tone and AA within the missile's acquisition envelope, typically ≤60° for rear-quarter shots. Do not fire without tone. At significant AA the seeker may struggle to acquire, so use a lag or ease reposition to reduce AA before attempting the shot.

Guns

A valid gun solution requires the Rule of Threes to be fully satisfied with the pipper placed on the bandit. In a turning fight this requires lead pursuit. Your nose must be ahead of the bandit's projected path, not pointed at him. The amount of lead required varies with range and closure rate.

A tracking shot requires the pipper to remain on the bandit for a sustained period. A snapshot is a momentary pipper-on opportunity taken when it presents itself, lower probability but sometimes the only option available.

The Quarter Plane

The quarter plane is a last-resort maneuver used when closure rate has become dangerously high and an overshoot is imminent. It is not a reposition.

The cue to act is approximately 1,000 ft of range, at which point the bandit's wingspan will fill roughly half the EEGS funnel on the HUD.

Execution:

1. Roll wings level with the horizon
2. Set idle power
3. Pull maximum performance up and out of the bandit's plane of motion

This arrests closure and separates you vertically from the bandit's plane. Once clear, roll back into a turn toward the bandit and reassess. The quarter plane costs significant energy and altitude. Use it only when nothing else will prevent the overshoot.

Common Errors

Error	Consequence	Correction
Late turn circle entry	End up outside the bandit's circle with AA too high	Watch for the LOS rate spike and turn at that moment
Early turn circle entry	Cross inside bandit's radius, give him a reversal picture	Wait for the LOS rate spike
Firing without satisfying Rule of Threes	Low probability shot	Reposition first, assess before employing
Pure pursuit at significant AA	Missile must curve hard, degraded effectiveness	Use CC or LC geometry for missile employment
Uncontrolled closure	Overshoot, offensive position lost	Use lag reposition early, quarter plane as last resort
Spending energy without reason	Slow speed, large radius, advantage lost	Maintain AB, only pull above sustained rate for a specific reason

BFM IV — Defensive BFM

This part is based on this video series by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

The objectives of defensive BFM are, in order of priority: survive, deny the bandit a weapons solution, and create the conditions for a role reversal. Survival is the primary objective. A fighter that remains in the fight presents a continuous problem to the attacker — he must maintain focus on the defender, consuming energy and attention that could otherwise be used offensively. Every second the defender survives is a second for supporting elements to close.

The Defensive Gameplan

The foundation of defensive BFM is the sustained rate turn. The defender should establish and maintain best sustained turn rate as the default gameplan. This accomplishes two things simultaneously: it maximizes the defender's turn performance for the duration of the engagement, and it preserves energy for subsequent maneuvering.

Deviation from the sustained rate gameplan should only occur when a specific threat — an imminent gun or missile shot — requires a more aggressive response. Expending energy prematurely leaves the defender slow, with a large turn radius and reduced options.

Cross-Check Discipline

In defensive BFM the pilot's attention is predominantly outside the cockpit on the bandit. However, three parameters must be periodically cross-checked throughout the engagement:

Parameter	Significance
Lift Vector	Determines plane of motion and available turn rate
G	Confirms correct turn performance is being applied
Airspeed	Identifies energy state; confirms sustained rate speed is maintained

The cross-check must not interrupt tally on the bandit for extended periods. Brief instrument scans returning immediately to visual are the correct technique. Loss of tally in a defensive engagement is a significant threat to survival.

Altitude Management

Altitude is a reserve of potential energy. Trading altitude for airspeed in a defensive turn temporarily increases available turn rate above the Ps = 0 line by lowering the lift vector below the horizon. This option is only available until the floor is reached. At that point the defender is constrained to a level sustained rate turn and loses the altitude trading option entirely.

Reading the Bandit's Intentions

The defender must continuously assess the bandit's pursuit course to anticipate his next action. The pursuit course is read visually:

Pursuit Course	Visual Cue	Likely Intent
Pure pursuit	Narrow nose-on profile	Missile shot setup; seeker acquisition in progress
Lead pursuit	Bandit's belly visible; nose pulled ahead of defender	Gun shot imminent
Lag pursuit	Top of bandit's aircraft visible; aft LOS movement	Controlling closure; repositioning for follow-on attack

Transition from lag to pure to lead is the signature sequence of an impending gun attack. Recognition of this sequence is the primary defensive cross-check task outside the cockpit.

Range assessment is equally important. The bandit's size relative to your field of view gives a continuous indication of closure. A bandit that fills a significant portion of your view is inside 2,500 ft and approaching gun parameters.

Maneuvers

Tighten Down

The tighten down is the first and most conservative response to a bandit closing into gun parameters. It is executed by increasing back pressure on the stick while already in a sustained rate turn, transitioning from sustained rate to a higher instantaneous turn rate.

The tighten down achieves two simultaneous effects. First, it rotates the defender's vulnerable rear quarter away from the attacker, driving the bandit outside the weapon employment zone. Second, the sudden airspeed reduction caused by the increased G creates a high closure rate problem for the attacker, forcing him to reposition to satisfy the Rule of Threes. This repositioning produces aft LOS movement and potentially a reversal picture.

The tighten down is an energy expenditure. It should be released once the immediate threat is defeated, returning to slightly below sustained rate and allowing AB to restore the energy state.

Out-of-Plane Maneuver (OOP)

The out-of-plane maneuver removes the defender from the attacker's plane of motion, forcing the attacker to reset his geometry. In a sustained rate turn both aircraft are operating in approximately the same plane of motion. Moving out of that plane disrupts the attacker's sight picture and solution geometry.

Execution:

1. Unload the aircraft — reduce back pressure to below 1G
2. Reposition the lift vector off the bandit, above or below his plane of motion
3. Apply smooth back pressure to establish a turn in the new plane of motion
4. Allow sufficient time for the aircraft to develop movement in the new plane before any follow-on maneuver
5. Assess LOS rate and bandit pursuit course in the new plane

The unloaded roll is critical. Rolling while pulling G consumes energy without producing useful turning room. The unload must precede the roll.

Upon establishing the new plane of motion, assess for a reversal opportunity. If high aft LOS rate combined with high HCA and close range is observed, a reversal may be executed. Otherwise, continue maneuvering in the new plane.

Jink

The jink is a last-resort maneuver executed when a gun shot is assessed as imminent and neither the tighten down nor the OOP has defeated the attacker's solution. It combines elements of both into a single aggressive sequence designed to spoil the attacker's plane of motion and create a closure problem simultaneously.

Execution:

1. Set throttle to idle
2. Unload the aircraft
3. Position the lift vector below the bandit
4. Apply maximum onset rate back pressure and hold until aerodynamic buffet onset

The resulting airspeed reduction is severe and deliberate. The attacker is presented with a sudden, unforecast closure rate and a simultaneous change in plane of motion. If the attacker does not immediately reposition he will overshoot. If he does reposition, aft LOS movement will develop and a reversal picture may emerge.

If a reversal picture does not present after the first jink, execute a second jink to the opposite side:

1. Idle power maintained
2. Unload
3. Reposition lift vector to the opposite side of the bandit
4. Maximum onset back pressure

Continue until the attacker is forced into lag or a reversal picture develops. The jink sequence trades altitude at a high rate. Do not initiate within 1,500 to 2,000 ft of the floor. The jink is the highest energy expenditure maneuver in defensive BFM and is reserved strictly for imminent gun shot situations.

The Reversal

A reversal is a turn at an opportune moment in the opposite direction, executed to transition from a defensive position to a neutral or offensive one. Correctly timed, a reversal exploits the attacker's angles and closure to reposition the defender onto an advantageous bearing. Incorrectly timed, it degrades the defender's position further.

The opportunity for a correct reversal is rare and may only be available for a few seconds. More often than not a reversal will degrade the situation rather than improve it. Patience and recognition of the correct picture are essential.

The Reversal Picture

The reversal picture is the combination of visual conditions that indicate a reversal opportunity exists:

• High heading crossing angle (HCA), combined with
• Close range, and or high aft LOS rate

A practical assessment question: does it appear that the bandit will cross behind my tail with minimal assistance from me? If the answer is yes, execute. If there is any doubt, do not reverse. A premature reversal presents the attacker with a stable, predictable target and makes his job easier.

Execution

The reversal is executed using an unloaded roll:

1. Reduce back pressure to unload the aircraft
2. Roll to the opposite direction
3. Resume back pressure once established in the new turn
4. Shift visual focus to the opposite side to regain tally on the bandit

Lift vector placement after the reversal depends on range. At close range, position the lift vector above or below the bandit to build turning room before pulling into his plane of motion. At greater range, place the lift vector directly on the bandit.

A successful reversal will typically result in a scissors — a neutral position from which either pilot may gain an advantage. This is a significant improvement over the defensive.

Maneuver Selection Summary

Situation	Maneuver	Notes
Bandit in lag or pure pursuit, not yet in gun parameters	Sustained rate turn	Conserve energy; maintain cross-check
Bandit transitioning to lead pursuit, gun shot developing	Tighten down	First response; moderate energy cost
Tighten down insufficient; bandit maintaining solution	Out-of-plane maneuver	Disrupts attacker geometry; assess for reversal
Gun shot imminent; no other option	Jink	Last resort; high energy cost; do not use prematurely
Reversal picture present	Reversal	Execute with unloaded roll; if in doubt, do not reverse

BFM V — High Aspect BFM

This part is based on this video series by The Ops Center by Mike Solyom.

High aspect BFM occurs when neither aircraft has a positional advantage at the merge. Both aircraft are nose-to-nose and the engagement begins from a neutral position. The name comes from the fact that at the merge, both aircraft are presenting high aspect to each other.

There are two reasons a pilot ends up in a high aspect fight. Either the bandit turns his nose toward you at the conclusion of a BVR intercept, or a BFM error led to the loss of an offensive position. The response is the same in either case.

The Lead Turn

The lead turn is the single most important concept in high aspect BFM. It is executed before the merge and determines the starting position of the fight.

Rather than waiting until the bandit's 3-9 line to begin turning — which produces a neutral merge — the pilot initiates the turn early. This builds an angular advantage before the first pass. At the sustained turn rate of the F-16, every additional second of turn produces more than 10° of angular advantage that the bandit must make up. Even two seconds of early turning can produce an advantage that a bandit in the same aircraft cannot recover from.

The lead turn cue is a rapidly increasing LOS rate from 11 to 10 o'clock for a left-side pass, or 1 to 2 o'clock for a right-side pass. This is the correct moment to turn. Turning too late leaves you behind the bandit with an energy problem. Turning too early gives the bandit a reversal picture.

If the lead turn is started too late there is little that can be done — accept the problem and manage it. If the lead turn is started too early, ease off the G momentarily until the bandit's LOS rate resumes, then resume the pull.

When executed correctly, the lead turn produces a stern conversion — the pilot arrives at the bandit's six o'clock within gun range without requiring further maneuvering.

Turning Room

Turning room is the separation between the two aircraft that is available to turn into. It can be built vertically or laterally, but never to the outside of the bandit's turn circle — floating outside gives the bandit more time and reduces the angular advantage gained in the lead turn.

The overriding factor when deciding whether to climb or descend is ease of tally on the bandit, and denying the bandit tally on you. Use the environment — put the bandit against a cloud, get between the bandit and the sun, avoid staying at the same altitude as the bandit. Tally is survival.

Vertical turning room comes with an energy cost that must be accounted for. A descent toward the bandit will add approximately 100 KCAS at the merge. A climb will cost approximately 100 KCAS. If this is not managed, the pilot will either overshoot the bandit or arrive too slow to sustain a competitive turn rate. Adjust entry speed before the turn-in accordingly. The fastest way to build speed without turning is to unload the aircraft — do this in the seconds between the turn-in and the merge.

Lateral turning room is always built to the inside of the bandit's turn circle. There is no useful lateral room to the outside.

Determining Fight Geometry

At the merge, the direction the bandit turns determines the geometry of the fight. The last aircraft to turn decides whether the engagement becomes a one-circle or two-circle fight. This is a deliberate choice — a pilot who executes a lead turn gives up the ability to choose the fight geometry, because the bandit turns last. The lead turn advantage is generally worth this tradeoff.

• Bandit turns toward you → two-circle fight. Both aircraft chase each other's tails. Ground track resembles two separate circles.
• Bandit turns away from you → one-circle fight. Both aircraft circle back toward each other for a second nose-to-nose pass. Ground track resembles a single circle.

Identifying which geometry has been established requires only one visual check: if the bandit is nose-to-tail relative to you, it is a two-circle fight. If it is nose-to-nose, it is a one-circle fight.

Losing Tally

Losing visual on the bandit in a turning fight is dangerous. Two rules apply immediately:

Do not fly straight and level while searching. Straight flight makes the defender's job trivial. Maintain the turn at all times.

Search along the turn circle. The bandit's most likely position is in the high-probability kill zone behind and above — the high-Pk WEZ. When the area behind you is clear, scan upward along the turn circle. The bandit will be somewhere along that arc if still engaged.

BFM V-A — Two-Circle Fight

A two-circle fight begins when the bandit turns away from you at the merge. Both aircraft are now chasing each other's tail, producing a ground track that resembles two separate circles. The fight is a turn rate contest — the aircraft that can sustain a higher turn rate will eventually work its nose onto the the tail of the other.

The Default Gameplan

In a two-circle fight, maintain best sustained turn rate. Do not deviate from this. The temptation to pull into lead or pure pursuit to force a quick shot will produce a predictable result: range closes rapidly, aspect increases to beam or beyond, and the bandit drifts aft on the canopy. The fight resets to where it started. This yo-yoing effect will repeat indefinitely if the pilot keeps chasing the shot prematurely. Stay on the sustained rate turn and let the geometry develop.

Reading the Fight

As both aircraft complete the first circle, the bandit's position on the canopy provides continuous information about how the fight is developing. Three conditions are possible:

Visual Cue	Assessment	Action
Bandit moving forward on the canopy, aspect stagnant or decreasing	Winning — angular advantage is building	Continue sustained rate turn; prepare for lead turn at next merge
Bandit moving forward on the canopy, aspect increasing toward nose-to-nose	Neutral — neither pilot has an advantage	Assess energy state; choose one-circle or two-circle at the next merge
Bandit's motion stagnant or drifting aft, bandit showing narrow nose-on profile	Losing — bandit is gaining angular advantage	Check G — increase to moderate buffet; if insufficient, transition to defensive BFM

When neutral cues are present, the decision between one-circle and two-circle at the next merge is based on energy state. Above approximately 350 KCAS the aircraft has sufficient energy for a sustained rate two-circle game plan. Below that, the turn radius is already small enough that a one-circle minimum radius game plan is more effective.

Turn Circle Extension (TCX)

Even with a turn rate advantage, the two turn circles will not be perfectly aligned after the first pass. The bandit will yo-yo up and down the canopy as the circles overlap and separate. Forcing a shot during this phase produces the same premature high-aspect result described above. The solution is the turn circle extension.

A TCX is two to three seconds of easing off the G — not a full unload, just a reduction in back pressure that allows the center of the turn circle to shift. This repositions the turn circle to better align with the bandit's. It is not a straight line, though it can be. It is simply a brief relaxation of the sustained rate pull followed by resumption.

The cue to extend is the bandit sliding into the assessment window — approximately 45 to 60 degrees AA — combined with aft LOS movement. This is the same assessment window used in offensive BFM. If the bandit's aspect is above 30 degrees, ease back on the G. That easing is the TCX.

Timing matters. A TCX initiated too early shifts the turn circle sideways without closing the gap. A TCX initiated too late pushes both circles further apart. The correct moment is when the bandit is in the assessment window with aft LOS developing.

Multiple TCX corrections should be expected before the turn circles align. The manual notes that this process can require between 500 and 1,000 degrees of turning — approximately three times around the circle. Do not force it. Once the circles align, the fight transitions naturally into offensive BFM.

Regaining Tally

If tally is lost during a two-circle fight, apply the rules from the fundamentals section: maintain the turn and scan along the turn circle upward through the high-Pk zone. In a nose-to-tail fight the bandit will be somewhere along that arc. Do not level the wings.

BFM V-B — One-Circle Fight

A one-circle fight begins when the bandit turns toward you at the merge. Both aircraft are now circling back to meet each other in a second nose-to-nose pass. The ground track resembles a single circle. Unlike the two-circle fight where turn rate is the deciding factor, the one-circle fight is a turn radius contest.

Why Radius and Not Rate

In a two-circle fight, a smaller radius produces no advantage because both aircraft are always on opposite sides of their respective circles and never converge to a point where the nose can be brought to bear. Turn rate determines who gets there first.

In a one-circle fight the geometry is different. Both aircraft are converging on the same point — the next merge. The aircraft with the smaller radius gets its nose pointed at the bandit sooner, creating an opportunity for a lead turn or even a shot before the second pass. The aircraft with the larger radius arrives late and with less angular advantage.

The Minimum Radius Gameplan

To minimize turn radius in the F-16, pull enough G to reach a moderate aerodynamic buffet. The buffet indicates the aircraft is operating above the sustained turn rate and approaching the maximum lift line on the EM diagram — the region of minimum radius. Do not stall. A moderate buffet is the target.

The F-16 does not have an audio cue for this in DCS. Use the physical buffet as the indicator. If nothing is shaking, more G is needed.

Reading the Fight

As both aircraft come around the circle toward the second merge, the bandit's position on the canopy indicates whether the radius fight is being won or lost:

Visual Cue	Assessment	Action
Bandit moving forward on the canopy, aspect stagnant or decreasing, top of bandit's aircraft visible	Winning — angular advantage is building	Execute lead turn at next merge to convert to offensive BFM
Bandit near or inside the canopy, nose pointed at you, bandit showing narrow nose-on profile	Neutral — neither pilot has significant advantage	Assess energy state; choose fight geometry at next merge
Bandit's motion stagnant or drifting aft, bandit showing narrow nose-on profile	Losing — bandit is gaining the angular advantage	Increase G to moderate buffet; if insufficient, transition to defensive BFM

At the Next Merge

A one-circle fight always leads to a second merge. Three outcomes are possible at that merge:

• Another one-circle — bandit turns away again. Continue minimum radius game plan.
• Two-circle — bandit turns toward you. Transition to sustained rate game plan.
• Scissors — both aircraft begin reversing rapidly on each other. See below.

The decision between one-circle and two-circle at the second merge is based on energy state. Above approximately 350 KCAS the aircraft has enough energy for a sustained rate two-circle game plan. Below that, the turn radius is already small and one-circle minimum radius is more effective. Do not be indecisive — the last fighter to turn determines the fight geometry. Commit to a direction.

The Scissors

The scissors develops when both aircraft are reversing rapidly on each other and neither can establish a clean angular advantage. Both aircraft are within the other's turn circle. The ground track resembles scissor blades opening and closing.

The gameplan in a scissors is identical to the one-circle minimum radius game plan: minimize forward ground track by minimizing turn radius. Pull to moderate buffet, place the lift vector on the bandit, and select max afterburner. The aircraft with the smaller forward ground track will eventually fall behind the other and transition to an offensive position.

One-circle fights and scissors consume energy at a high rate due to the sustained high-G maneuvering required. Be aware of airspeed throughout — winning the radius fight but arriving slow leaves the bandit with an energy advantage that may be unrecoverable.

Losing the One-Circle

If the bandit is gaining the angular advantage, the symptoms are: the bandit's motion on the canopy goes stagnant or drifts aft, and the bandit's profile narrows to a pure pursuit nose-on silhouette. This is the bandit executing the same minimum radius game plan successfully.

When losing cues are present, first confirm G is sufficient — pull to moderate buffet if not already there. If the situation continues to deteriorate, transition to defensive BFM immediately. The one-circle fight has become a defensive situation and should be treated as one.

Never stop maneuvering. A neutral position is always recoverable.